Linen

“The history of linen

Linen is the oldest textile in the world, predating cotton and possible even wool, and is know to have been in use during the Stone Age”…

Early history

Linen is believed to have first been systematically cultivated in Mesopotamia, in the Middle East region know as the ‘cradle of civilization’, around 5000 to 6000 BC. The ancient Egyptians and Babylonians cultivated flax, which was then traded with other societies of the region by the Phoenicians. The ancient Egyptians developed a sophisticated linen ‘industy’; so valuable was the commodity that it was sometimes used as a form of currency. Linenwas seen as a symbol of light and purity, as much as it was a display of wealth for the afterlife. A shroud for an important Pharaoh would often consist of 1,000 m (over half a mile) of fine linen. Some of these shrouds were so finely spun and woven that they still cannot be replicated by modern methods. The linen curtains that shielded the tomb of Tutankhamun were found intact after over 3,000 years, examined by the British Museum and found to be structurally perfect after almost 3,500 years.

Among the earliest records documenting the manufacturing of linen are the ancient Greek tablets of Pylos. Concurrently, ancient Roman blueprints show that their manufacturing methods closely resembled current manufacturing processes”.

Segments from the book, “Fabric for Fashion” by Clive Hallett and Amanda Johnston, 2010. Page 129, 130.

“The First World War

Until the twentieth century flax cultivation was very much a cottage industry; however, with increased mechanization the demand for factory-scale production became inevitable. Flax was vital supply during World War I, for both sides. It was used for tents, ropes and canvas for aeroplanes. The scale of production was insufficient to meet the voracious appetite of the war machine, so the supply was supplemented with cotton, which was more readily available due to its faster manufacturing methods. During the interwar years this less expensive, and perhaps more manageable, fabric eventually usurped linen’s position as the fabric of choice.

Postwar demands

In the industrialized world, linen, in common with other natural fibres, fell out of fashion after World War II. The new preference was for synthetics, which were more in tune with the contemporary preoccupation for modernity and expectations of an easy-car lifestyle, which better suited women’s new role in the workplace. High-maintenance fabrics, together with many other domestic chores, were replaced by anything and everything that could simplify life.

By the 1960s, in Great Britain and North America, linen had developed something of an esoteric status, appealing to only certain type of consumer. However, in the Mediterranean and South America linen continued to enjoy popularity, because synthetics were not abe to offer the same level of coolness and comfort in hot climates.

By the mid-1970s linen as a clothing fabric was at an all time low, with less than 10 per cent of linen produced being used for fashion textiles. Investment in the industry during the 1980s and into the 1990s resulted in technological developments that eliminated many of the traditional characteristics of linen that were not liked by the average high-street retail customer. Mechanical pre-treatments, enzymes and ammonia have made linen into a totally modern fabric that can be wrinkle-free, shrink-resistant and sometimes even non-iron.

By the mid-1990s linen’s unique appeal was once more appreciated, with around 70 per cent of linen production being again used for fashion fabrics. Today there are special linen and cotton blends being developed for use in denim production, with the aim of improving the feel of this fashion staple in hot and humid climates”.

Segments from the book, “Fabric for Fashion” by Clive Hallett and Amanda Johnston, 2010. Page 132.

“Linen fibre

Grades of flax differ, with flax differ, with flax cultivated in Western Europe usually of a better quality.

Linen is the yarn and fabric made from the fibres of the stem of the flax plant, the only cellulosic plant indigenous to Western Europe. Flax, also referred to as linseed, is a commercial field crop plant grown for its fibres, which are used to manufacture cloth, rope or paper. Flax grows in many parts of the world but prefers temperate maritime climates and good soil to flourish well.

Flax stems vary form 60 to 120 cm in height, and the individual bast fibres are held together in ‘bundles’ by pectin. It takes about 100 days for the planted flax seed to grow to maturity and be ready for harvesting. The plant has small, five-petal flowers that are either blue or white and that blossom for only one day: the plants with blue flowers tend to yield better crops. The fruit capsules contain the seeds, which are converted to linseed oil”.

Segments from the book, “Fabric for Fashion” by Clive Hallett and Amanda Johnston, 2010. Page 136.

“Ecological considerations

Linen is a more expensive fibre than cotton, with much more of a niche market, making it an ideal vehicle for organic cultivation and ecological production methods.

Flax is or can be an ecologically pertinent and sustainable crop. It grows best when crops are rotated annually, a sound method of crop production that does not strip the soil of all its nutrients. Flax is environmentally friendly, requiring little irrigation and energy to process, and is fully biodegradable. With Crop rotation it is not necessary to use chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and even when these are used flax requires only one-fifth of the pesticides and artificial fertilizers required for commercially grown cotton. Additionally, linen is up to 12 times stronger that the equivalent cotton product, which dramatically increases its life span, which means it does not need to be replaced so often.

Linen absorbs dye well, especially natural dyes, and does not require chemical treatments. It can be sun bleached to avoid the use of artificial agents.

Linen Production

The fundamental principles of producing linen yarn from the flax plant have changed little since early Roman times. However, modern technology has revolutionized the efficiency and flexibility of the yarn, and the speed at which it can now be produced.

Flax processing is labour-intensive, requiring skilled workers; however several by-products are also produced – including linseed oil for linoleum, soap, fuel and cattle feed – meaning there is minimum wastage”.

Segments from the book, “Fabric for Fashion” by Clive Hallett and Amanda Johnston, 2010. Page 137, 138.

Posted by Alice

Science Museum - Recycled Welly, Plant Pot and Silver Thimble

posted by Alice

Plasticity Exhibition

http://www.flickr.com/photos/rb-rt/4424438819/

http://www.icis.com/blogs/icis-chemicals-confidential/files/2010/08/plasticity-at-londons-science.html

posted by Alice

New Materials: Plastics

New materials: Plastics
The 'second industrial revolution' marked the start of the age of plastics. The history of most other materials is lost to antiquity but the development of plastics took place in modern times so the contributions and innovations of key people are recognised.
Plastics can be defined in a number of ways but a popular and commonly used definition is: a material that can be moulded or shaped into different forms under pressure and/or heat.
Chemically, plastics are polymers - substances composed of long chains of repeating molecules (monomers) made up predominantly of carbon and hydrogen atoms which, under the right conditions, join up into chain structures.
While early plastic pioneers did not understand the structure of plastics, some realised the enormous technical, social and economic importance of their invention.
Images with this text:
Lower part of a costume, festooned with cellophane, worn by Mrs A G McCorquodale (later Dame Barbara Cartland, 1901-2000) at a Santa Claus ball, December 1929.

Parkesine
Parkesine is generally accepted as the first plastic. It was invented by an energetic English scientist called Alexander Parkes.
Parkesine was a semi-synthetic substance based on cellulose, a natural substance obtained from sources such as cotton flock and wood fibres.
Parkes discovered that cellulose nitrate could be mixed with plasticisers and solvents to produce a mouldable substance.
He unveiled his invention, to great public interest, at the 1862 Great International Exhibition in London. His display included combs, hair slides, billiard balls and carved plaques.
Parkes went on to produce a wide range of Parkesine objects from fishing-rod spools to a miniature, intricately carved head of Christ, crowned with thorns, in imitation amber. But despite having patented an important innovation, Parkes failed to achieve commercial success, partly because the material was extremely flammable.
Images with this text:
Buttons, hair slides and ornamental objects made from Parkesine.
Alexander Parkes (1813-1890), the inventor of Parkesine, the first plastic.
A ball, hair ornaments, buttons and other objects. Alexander Parkes produced a wide range of objects made from Parkesine.

Celluloid
John Wesley Haytt worked in parallel to Alexander Parkes but in the United States. He experimented with cellulose nitrate in a bid to find a cheap substitute for ivory in the manufacture of billiard balls.
Like Parkes, Hyatt found that the substance was dangerously flammable. As he later wrote of his billiard balls: 'occasionally the violent contact of the balls would produce a mild explosion like a percussion guncap. We had a letter from a billiard saloon proprietor in Colorado, mentioning this fact and saying that he did not care so much about it but that instantly every man in the room pulled a gun.'
The breakthrough came in 1870 when Hyatt discovered that camphor made an excellent plasticiser for cellulose nitrate, producing a more stable and usable product. This he christened celluloid and it brought him great commercial success. Celluloid, also a semi-synthetic substance, was used to make decorative items such as dressing table sets, bags and low-cost, wipe-clean collars and cuffs.
Images with this text:
A pair of dice made in imitation ivory celluloid.
Celluloid handbag, with moulded design and leather strap, 1920s.
Advertisement for celluloid waterproof collars, cuffs and shirt bosoms. For 'all who study convenience, neatness and economy.'

Bakelite
The first completely synthetic plastic was produced in 1907 by a New York chemist called Leo Baekeland. He created a liquid resin, which rapidly hardened in the shape of the container in which it was being heated. He called it Bakelite.
Bakelite had impressive qualities. Unlike celluloid-based substances it could be melted down innumerable times and reformed.
It would not burn, boil, melt, or dissolve in any commonly available acid or solvent. It was heat resistant, chemically stable and shatterproof. It would neither crack, fade, crease, nor discolour from exposure to sunlight, dampness or sea salt - once firmly set, it would retain its shape and form under any circumstances.
Bakelite was widely used to make auto parts and for domestic purposes; it proved to be more effective as an electrical insulator than any other material available. It was also a key ingredient in many weapons used by the United States in the Second World War.
Images with this text:
The reactor vessel 'old faithful'. The equipment in which Baekeland produced his first resins.
Leo Baekeland (1863-1944), the inventor of Bakelite.
Mouldings made from Bakelite.

Artificial silk
In 1883 Sir Joseph Swan, an English scientist, developed a fine fibre using cellulose nitrate. His wife Hannah Swan produced fabrics by crocheting these fibres; she called them 'artificial silk'.
It was a French chemist, Count Hilaire de Chardonnet, who achieved the first commercial scale production of artificial silk. His product caused a sensation at the Paris Exhibition of 1889. Although commercially successful at first, sales slowed down when the public realised that the material was very flammable. A contemporary joke suggested that the ideal present for a mother-in-law was a box of matches and a dress of Chardonnet silk.
In 1894 three British inventors, Cross, Bevan and Beadle, patented a safe method of making artificial silk. They called their product viscose although the name rayon was adopted in the United States in the 1920s.
Viscose products had an enormous impact. The greatest early success was in women's hosiery - artificial silk brought silk stockings within reach of the mass market.
Images with this text:
Skeins of artificial silk in different colours.
Viscose rayon, c.1880s.
Samples of artificial silk, c.1883.
Early sample of woven viscose fabric.

Cellophane
Cellophane was invented by Dr. Jacques E. Brandenberger, a Swiss textile engineer. Legend has it that in 1900 Brandenberger was seated at a restaurant when another customer spilt wine on the tablecloth. As a waiter removed the cloth and replaced it with a clean one, Brandenberger decided that he would invent a clear flexible film that could be applied to cloth to make it waterproof.
He conducted research with different materials and eventually applied liquid viscose (later known as rayon) to cloth. The cloth became too stiff and brittle. The experiment had failed but Brandenberger noted that the coating peeled off in a transparent film that might have other applications.
By 1908 he had developed a machine that could produce transparent viscose sheets. He marketed his product as Cellophane.
Cellophane became available to the public in 1919. In 1927 the addition of a waterproof lacquer coating meant that it could be used to package food.
Images with this text:
Two illustrations from Brandenberger's complete specification. Titled 'Improvements in and relating to the Treatment and Application of Cellulosic film', 18 November 1908. Accepted 23 September 1909.
December 1929. Mrs A G McCorquodale (later Dame Barbara Cartland, 1901-2000) in a costume festooned with cellophane at a Santa Claus Ball.

http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/stories/the_second_industrial_revolution/05.ST.01/?scene=6&tv=true                                                                                               posted by Alice

Earth Cloth and Recycling Plastic Bags

“Bag made from recycled plastic by Conserve India, 2005. This bag is a remarkable example of a recycling and waste management scheme that has turned into a successful commercial enterprise. Conserve is a waste management NGO that was founded by Shalabh and Anita Ahuja in 2003 to address the mounting problem of domestic waste in the poorer areas of New Delhi. It converts a waste problem – polythene bags that block the drains and litter the streets into fashionable hand bags and employs 60 women. Ragpickers are commissioned to gather and sort polythene bags. They are then washed, sorted by colour and moulded into thick, colourfully patterned plastic sheets by being passed through heated rollers. The colours you see are derived from the way the bags are arranged in the press. The sheets are cut and stitched into a range of tote bags and purses that are marketed internationally.”

“El Anatsui (Ghana), Earth Cloth, 2003. Liquor bottle cloths, aluminium foil and copper wire.”

“Textiles Today” by Chloe Colchester, 2007.                                                                                                 Posted by Alice

Jeff Banks Steel Wedding Dress

http://www.superstock.co.uk/stock-photos-images/1895-17601

http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10305738&itemw=4&itemf=0001&itemstep=1&itemx=6

posted by Alice

Cotton Production

“Cotton production

The production of cotton is generally efficient, with less than 10 percent of the picked weight lost in the subsequent processes of converting the raw cotton bolls (seed cases) into pure fibre.

Harvesting

One hundred million rural households around the world are involved in cotton production, the majority of which happens within the  developing world where cotton continues to be picked by hand. In Europe, Australia and the United States, on the other hand, it is mechanically harvested by one of two types of harvesting machine, depending on the cotton variety grown. A cotton picker removes the cotton from the boll without damaging the plant, while a cotton stripper machine strips the entire boll from the plant. Strippers are used in climatic regions that are too windy to grow the ‘picker’ varieties of cotton.

In some cases a chemical defoliant is first used to remove the leave; alternatively natural defoliation would occur after a temperature freeze.

After harvesting the land is tilled. The conventional method is to cut down the reaming stalks and turn the soil ready for the next round of seed planting. The alternative method, known as the ‘conservation method’, leaves the stalks and the plant residue standing on the surface of the soil, and the new seeds are planted through the ‘litter’ that remains.

After harvesting a machine known as a module builder compresses the cotton into large modular blocks that are covered and temporarily stored in the fields. These are collected by specially designed trucks and transported to the gin.

Ginning

Ginning is the generic term used for the complete process of turning the cotton bolls into fibre, and the building in which these processes occur is referred to as the gin. The name was originally used as an abbreviation of the word ‘engine’, and is now part of cotton vocabulary. At this stage, and until the ginning process has been completed, the cotton is referred to as seed cotton.

Once the cotton blocks have been delivered to the gin they are broken apart and fed into the ginning macvhine, which efficiently separates the cotton fibres from the seedpods, removing leaves, burs, dirt, stems and the fuzzy down known as linters. Usable cotton fibres will make up about 35 per cent of the re-ginned cotton weight. The balkance of the pre-ginned weight is mede up from 55 per cent removed seeds and 10 per cent waste. The seeds are refined and made into cottonseed oil for human consumption. The linters are used in the manufacture of paper, as well as within the plastics industry.

The ginning machine also cleans the cotton, which is now referred to as lint instead of seed cotton.”…

“Processing and spinning

Once processed to remove traces of wax, protein and seeds, cotton fibre consists of nearly pure cellulose, which is a natural polymer. The arrangement of the cellulose is such that it gives cotton fibres a high degree of strength, absorbency and durability. Each fibre is made up of between 20 to 30 layers of cellulose coiled in a neat series of natural springs. The fibres of the open boll dry into flat, twisted, ribbon-like shapes that become kinked and interlock together. It is this interlocked form that is ideal for spinning into fine yarn.

Spinning is a generic term for all the processes the fibres will pass through to become yarn, ready for eventual weaving or knitting.

Once at the spinning mill, which may also be referred to as the ‘spinners’, the bales are opened and further cleaned to remove any residue vegetable matter and short lint. A machine called a picker beats, loosens and mixes the fibres, which are then passed through toothed rollers of varying sizes to remove the residue vegetable matter. The fibres finally come off the machine in batts, large bundles of multiple strands of fibres, which are then ready to be carded. The short lint is sold on for other processes and end uses.

The carding machine lines up the fibres evenly to make them easier to spin. This is done by passing the batts through different-sized rollers tat produce what is termed slivers(pronounced sly-vers), or untwisted ropes of fibres. Several slivers are then combined to equalize the thicker and thinner parts of the slivers, thus making a more consistent size. These are now too thick, so are separated into rovings, long narrow bundles of fibre with twist to hold them together.

In addition to carding, fibres can also go through an optional combing process to make them smoother.”…

“Ecological and ethical considerations

The increasing demand for cotton at competitive prices has resulted in what may be considered mass-exploitation of poor cotton farmers and the land upon which cotton is cultivated. However, there are laternatives that allow the consumer to choose a product from an ethically and environmentally sound source.

Approximately 30 per cent of the cotton harvested and knitted for T-shirt production is shipped to a second country for manufacturing, impacting on cotton’s carbon footprint.

Some cotton cultivation is known to make use of a variety of pesticides and insecticides. These are especially prevalent in the developing world and some sources attribute deaths within the cotton industry to their use. Cotton Incorporated is a company with offices worldwide that offers extensive information regarding all aspects of cotton, from farming and ‘green issues’ to design and manufacturing. It also has a extensive list of fabric resources.

The American and Australian cotton industries have invested in biotechnology to try to combat the excessive use of insecticides associated with standard commercial cotton production. However, this has resulted in much of the cotton grown today being GM cotton.

There are two types of GM, or transgenic, cotton in use, Bollgard is obtained from a naturally occurring soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, referred to as Bt cotton. This naturally occurring soil organism is used as a spray, which reduces the use in insecticides by up to 85 per cent compared to conventionally grown cotton. It gives the plant an in- built tolerance to its main pest, the Heliothis caterpillar, and in North America the boll weevil. The alternative product is Roundup Ready, which is obtained from the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens. This herbicide-tolerant cotton reduces the amount of soil cultivation and herbicides needed to control weeds. It also promotes healthier soil through less disruption a reduction in herbicide residues.

Organic cotton

GM cotton shares with organic cotton the same issue of chemical usage in the growing cycle, however the similarities stop there as organic cotton has a completely different ethos.

Slowly but steadily ther are now a growing number of farmers moving towards a mor organic, ecologically sound and socially sustainable method of production. Orgainc agricultural methods rely upon crop rotation and the use of natural enemies, such as ladybirds to suppress harmful insects, rather than the use of agrochemicals, artificial fertilizers and other toxic-persistent chemicals. Organic cotton does not use genetically modified organisms but seeks to build a biologically diverse agricultural system, replenishing and maintain the soil’s fertility.

Organic cotton is far more expensive to produce; however it does not pollute and there is no over-production. Unfortunately, currently it only represents a small percentage of global cotton production.

Organic cotton is grown in around 20 countries, with Turkey the primary producer. The United States, India, Peru, Uganda, Egypt, Senegal, Tanzania, China and Israel also produce organic cotton”.

“Water

Cotton is a thirsty crop, a fact that is fast presenting problems to countries whose economic growth overly relies upon the cotton industry but whose geographical position suffers from water shortages. Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, both once part of the former Soviet Union, have in parts been turned into a desert through the excessive cultivation of cotton, which in turn has also led to the shrinking of the Aral Sea.

Developments are now being made in the cultivation of new plant varieties that include drought-resistant, flame-resistant and wrinkle-free genetically modified cotton”.

Segments from the book, “Fabric for Fashion” by Clive Hallett and Amanda Johnston, 2010. - posted by Alice